PROF. UGO PATRONI GRIFFI, LAWYER
1.- The convergence between port facilities and nuclear energy represents one of the most promising and, at the same time, complex frontiers in the contemporary energy landscape. The advent of artificial intelligence and advanced automation in modern ports has radically transformed the energy profile of these strategic infrastructures, requiring a profound rethinking of traditional energy models. Today’s so-called ‘smart ports’ require a stable, continuous and zero-emission energy supply to support data centres, fleets of autonomous vehicles, automated cranes and advanced communications infrastructure.
In this scenario of technological transformation, new-generation nuclear energy emerges as a solution particularly suited to the needs of the port sector. Innovative technologies such as Small Modular Reactors and floating nuclear power plants offer flexibility, safety and sustainability features that align perfectly with the needs of smart ports. The recent draft law delegating powers to the government on sustainable nuclear energy, approved in September 2025, marks a turning point in Italian energy policy and opens up new scenarios for the integration of nuclear power into the national port system.
2.- The transformation of ports from simple freight interchange hubs to complex digitalised logistics ecosystems has revolutionised their energy profile. Artificial intelligence is the driving force behind this transformation, enabling levels of automation and operational optimisation that were unthinkable just a few years ago, but at the same time requiring a newly designed energy infrastructure. Smart ports are based on a complex technological architecture that integrates advanced automation systems, high-computational-capacity port data centres, 5G communication networks and digital twin platforms (a project also involves the port of Taranto) for operational simulation. These systems require a constant and reliable power supply to operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week, without any interruption. Port data centres (PCS), in particular, are the beating heart of the smart port, processing enormous amounts of data from IoT sensors, tracking systems and logistics management platforms in real time.
As highlighted in the explanatory report accompanying the sustainable nuclear energy bill, the growing demand for energy to power data centres and artificial intelligence systems, which must guarantee uninterrupted service availability, is one of the main drivers of the increase in national energy demand. The MIT (https://www.technologyreview.com/2025/05/20/1116327/ai-energy-usage-climate-footprint-big-tech/) has estimated that by 2028 (in two years’ time!), energy used specifically for artificial intelligence purposes will increase to between 165 and 326 terawatt hours per year. That’s more than all the electricity currently used by US data centres for all purposes; it’s enough to power 22% of US households every year. This could generate the same emissions as travelling over 300 billion miles, more than 1,600 round trips from Earth to the Sun. By 2050, energy consumption due to artificial intelligence, particularly data centres, is set to increase significantly, reaching approximately 2,000-4,500 terawatt hours (TWh), while overall global electricity consumption is expected to grow by more than 80% by 2050 due to broader trends towards electrification. This phenomenon is particularly relevant in smart ports, where a high density of AI technologies and automated systems are concentrated in limited spaces.
In parallel with the increase in energy demand, ports are under growing regulatory and social pressure to reduce their environmental impact. The European Green Deal and the directives of the International Maritime Organisation impose stringent decarbonisation targets. The electrification of port operations and the adoption of alternative fuels for ships, such as green hydrogen, whose production is highly energy-intensive, are becoming strategic imperatives that further increase the demand for clean electricity.
Traditional renewable sources, while fundamental to the ecological transition, have inherent limitations that make it difficult to use them as the sole solution for the needs of a smart port. The intermittency of production, which depends on weather conditions, creates grid stability problems and requires significant investment in storage systems to ensure operational continuity. The land occupation required for large-scale photovoltaic and wind farms is a further constraint in congested port areas, while the scalability of the power supplied may not be sufficient to cover the peaks in demand generated by port operations.
The explanatory report accompanying the draft law confirms this analysis, emphasising that it is difficult for the required energy service to be provided by renewable sources alone, which are inherently characterised by their non-programmability and the incomplete predictability of their production. It also highlights how all the major companies investing in artificial intelligence are adopting policies to use nuclear energy as a decarbonised, stable and continuous source, available 24 hours a day.
In this context, new-generation nuclear energy is set to play a strategic role, offering the ability to provide continuous energy with an extremely small territorial footprint and zero carbon emissions. Innovative technologies such as Small Modular Reactors and floating nuclear power plants are solutions with the potential to power the digital and sustainable revolution of the ports of the future, ensuring safety, resilience and economic competitiveness.
3.- Analysis of international best practices in the port sector reveals diverse but converging approaches towards the common goal of combining operational efficiency, environmental sustainability and economic competitiveness. The ports of Rotterdam, Singapore and Hamburg represent three models of excellence that offer valuable insights into how the integration of advanced technologies and innovative energy solutions can radically transform the port sector.
The Port of Rotterdam has taken a pioneering role in the energy transition, positioning itself as ‘Europe’s Hydrogen Hub’ and aiming to achieve net zero CO₂ emissions by 2050. The Dutch port’s energy strategy involves the development of a comprehensive infrastructure for the production, storage and distribution of green hydrogen, with investments exceeding €2 billion. The ‘H2-Fifty’ project aims to install 250 MW of electrolysis capacity by 2025, requiring an energy demand of approximately 1.2 TWh per year of decarbonised electricity.
The implementation of cold ironing systems to supply electricity to ships at berth has contributed to reducing local emissions, but has also increased the port’s electricity demand by 35% over the last five years. Despite the installation of 50 MW of photovoltaic capacity and plans for 150 MW of offshore wind power, the variability of these sources requires costly and complex backup and storage systems. Rotterdam’s growing energy demand, estimated at over 8 TWh per year by 2030, highlights the need for stable and programmable energy sources, for which nuclear energy could be a strategic solution.
Singapore is the global benchmark for port automation and the implementation of artificial intelligence. The new Tuas Port, inaugurated in 2022 with a target capacity of 65 million TEUs, is considered the most technologically advanced port in the world. Extensive automation, including automated cranes, fleets of autonomous vehicles, private 5G networks and next-generation vessel traffic management systems, requires an estimated 400 GWh of energy per year, with peak demand reaching 60 MW.
The need to ensure continuous and reliable power supply 24 hours a day makes the stability of the electricity grid critical. Singapore aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 through the complete electrification of its port vehicle fleet and the implementation of advanced smart grids. The enormous energy requirements of Tuas Port, combined with the limited availability of space for large-scale renewable energy plants, make Singapore an ideal case study for evaluating the application of advanced nuclear technologies.
The Port of Hamburg has chosen to focus on advanced digitalisation through the ‘smartPORT’ project, one of the most ambitious port digital transformation initiatives. The integration of intelligent systems includes integrated Port Community Systems, digital twins for operational simulation, artificial intelligence platforms for predictive maintenance and IoT sensor networks for environmental monitoring. Digitisation has reduced energy consumption by 15% through process optimisation, but at the same time has increased energy demand for data centres and computing systems.
A comparative analysis of the three models reveals significant convergences. All three have seen a substantial increase in energy demand linked to automation and digitalisation, require continuous and reliable power supplies that are difficult to guarantee from intermittent renewable sources alone ( ), have set ambitious emission reduction targets and are investing heavily in green hydrogen production. This convergence between the requirements highlighted by international best practices and the characteristics of advanced nuclear energy suggests that the integration of these technologies in the ports of the future represents not only a technically feasible opportunity, but also a potential decisive competitive advantage.
4.- Technological developments in the nuclear sector have produced innovative solutions that are particularly suited to the needs of the port sector. New-generation technologies are characterised by greater safety, flexibility and scalability compared to traditional reactors, offering concrete opportunities for the integration of nuclear energy into smart ports.
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) represent one of the most promising innovations in the contemporary nuclear landscape. With a typical power output of between 10 and 300 MWe, SMRs offer features that are particularly suited to port requirements through their modularity, which allows for gradual installation as energy demand grows, passive safety systems that do not require human intervention or external power supply, significantly less land use than traditional reactors, and construction times reduced to 3-5 years compared to 10-15 years for conventional reactors.
SMRs could be integrated into port infrastructure to power data centres and automated control systems, green hydrogen production processes, cold ironing systems for powering ships at berth, desalination plants and energy-intensive industrial processes. Several SMR projects are at an advanced stage of development internationally, including NuScale Power in the United States, the first SMR approved by the US NRC with deployment planned for 2029, the Rolls-Royce SMR programme in the United Kingdom, supported by the British government with investments of £500 million, and GE Hitachi’s BWRX-300, a simplified boiling water reactor currently undergoing licensing in Canada.
Floating nuclear power plants represent a particularly innovative solution for the port sector, combining the flexibility of maritime transport with the power of nuclear energy. FNPPs offer specific advantages through on-site assembly, which allows for mass production, reducing costs and construction times; flexibility of positioning in port, nearshore or offshore areas; reduced territorial impact without the need to acquire valuable coastal land; the use of seawater for natural reactor cooling; and transportability, which allows for repositioning as needed.
CORE POWER is emerging as a leader in the development of floating nuclear power plants for the OECD market, with projects that have characteristics particularly suited to port applications. Their LIBERTY Programme provides a regulatory and financial framework for the development of FNPPs with flexible deployment, as evidenced by their statement that ‘FNPPs can be deployed in ports and terminals, as well as in nearshore and offshore environments’. Specific applications include reliable 24/7 power supply for port data centres and AI infrastructure, as well as the possibility of direct integration with existing port electricity grids.
Micro reactors, with capacities below 10 MWe, represent a solution for specific applications within ports due to their extremely compact size, transportability by truck, autonomous operation for long periods and high intrinsic safety. Their port applications include powering remote terminals or artificial islands, backup power systems for critical infrastructure, electric vehicle charging stations, and energy support for emergency operations.
Fourth-generation technologies, currently in the research and development phase, promise further improvements in terms of safety, efficiency and sustainability. Sodium-cooled fast reactors offer greater fuel efficiency and the ability to use existing nuclear waste, while high-temperature reactors are ideal for high-temperature industrial processes and efficient hydrogen production via thermolysis. Molten salt reactors offer high intrinsic safety, operational flexibility and reduced production of long-lived waste.
The integration of nuclear technologies into port infrastructure requires a systemic approach that considers technical aspects such as connection to the port electricity grid and cooling systems, logistical aspects related to the transport and installation of nuclear components, and regulatory aspects for compliance with nuclear and port regulations. There are already significant examples of nuclear power plants located near port areas, such as Doel in the port of Antwerp, Borssele in the port of Flushing and Vandellòs II in the port of Tarragona, which demonstrate the feasibility of nuclear-port integration in complex industrial contexts.
5.- The approval by the Council of Ministers of the Draft Law Delegating Powers to the Government on Sustainable Nuclear Energy a few days ago marks a turning point in Italian energy policy and opens up new scenarios for the integration of nuclear power into the national port system. This measure, which definitively overturns the 1987 referendum ban, introduces a comprehensive and modern regulatory framework specifically geared towards new-generation nuclear technologies and the country’s decarbonisation needs.
The bill is part of European and international obligations and European policies aimed at achieving decarbonisation targets by 2050, with the primary objective of achieving energy security and independence for the country and containing energy consumption costs for end customers. The explanatory report clarifies that the measure stems from the awareness that the decarbonisation targets by 2050 cannot be achieved solely by focusing on renewable energy sources, recognising the strategic role of nuclear energy as a decarbonised, stable and continuous source.
The bill has features that are particularly relevant to the port sector. The identification of the best nuclear technologies, including modular or advanced technologies as defined by the IAEA, specifically includes SMRs and fourth-generation ‘ ‘ technologies. The provision of procedures for the siting, construction or installation of plants also implicitly includes innovative solutions such as floating power plants.
At the heart of the bill is the National Programme aimed at developing sustainable nuclear energy production that contributes to the national strategy for achieving carbon neutrality and guarantees energy security and independence. According to the explanatory report, the Programme will have to define the objectives for the inclusion of sustainable nuclear energy in the Italian energy mix, with an optimal share of nuclear production which, according to the updated PNIEC assumptions, should cover between 11% and 22% of electricity demand, corresponding to an installed capacity of between 8 and 16 GW.
The integrated authorisation procedures under the responsibility of the Ministry of the Environment and Energy Security replace all administrative measures, authorisations, concessions, licences, clearances and acts of consent, significantly simplifying the authorisation process. The declaration of nuclear interventions as being of public utility, urgent and cannot be postponed facilitates the acquisition of the necessary areas, even in complex port contexts. The recognition of qualifications and certifications already issued by the competent authorities of OECD-NEA member states facilitates the import of international technologies and expertise.
The bill also imposes adequate financial guarantees, with costs borne exclusively by the authorised entity, for the management of the entire life cycle of the plant, ensuring coverage of decommissioning and waste management costs. The possible establishment of an independent administrative authority for nuclear safety, with certification, supervision, surveillance and control tasks in accordance with European and international best practices, would ensure the independence of nuclear safety regulation.
Finally, the draft law provides for an initial allocation of €20 million for each of the years 2027, 2028 and 2029 for the implementation of investments, in addition to €1.5 million for 2025 and €6 million for 2026 for information campaigns. The implementing legislative decrees must be adopted within twelve months of the date of entry into force of the law, with the possibility of supplementary and corrective measures within twenty-four months.
The sustainable nuclear bill opens up concrete prospects for the integration of nuclear power in Italian ports through the possibility of using nuclear energy to power green hydrogen production processes, the availability of stable and continuous energy for automated operations and port data centres, the contribution to the decarbonisation objectives of the maritime sector and the potential competitive advantage for Italian ports on the international scene. However, significant challenges also emerge, including the need to adapt port regulations to integrate nuclear expertise, the definition of responsibilities between Port System Authorities and nuclear authorities, the management of social acceptability, and coordination with European energy transition policies.
Port reform Law 84/1994 will need to be updated to integrate nuclear competences. The draft law provides for the coordination of the regulation of nuclear energy production with other regulations governing the energy market, implicitly including port regulations. The integration of nuclear power in ports will require a re r redefinition of the competences of the Port System Authorities, with particular reference to port energy planning, coordination with the Nuclear Safety Authority, integrated emergency management and relations with local communities.
The application of nuclear civil liability principles to the port context presents specific challenges relating to the liability of the nuclear operator versus that of the port authority, coordination between nuclear and maritime insurance, the management of damage to third parties in the port environment, and liability for interruption of port activities. The insurance industry is developing specific products for new nuclear technologies, including policies for SMRs with modular coverage, specific insurance for FNPPs that combine nuclear and maritime risks, and insurance pooling mechanisms for port nuclear projects.
6.- The integration of nuclear energy into the port sector requires a thorough understanding of the complex legal framework governing both sectors. The transnational nature of maritime trade and the specificity of nuclear regulation create a multi-level regulatory system ranging from international conventions to national regulations.
The international nuclear civil liability system is based on two main conventions. The 1960 Paris Convention and the 1963 Brussels Supplementary Protocol apply in OECD countries, while the 1963 Vienna Convention has a broader scope of application. These conventions establish the principle of strict liability of the nuclear operator, with liability limits and compensation mechanisms. For port applications, the adaptation of these principles to the mobile context of floating nuclear power plants and the specific nature of port operations is particularly important.
International maritime conventions, including SOLAS for maritime safety, MARPOL for the prevention of marine pollution and the INF Code for the transport of nuclear fuel, require specific coordination for FNPPs, which must comply with both nuclear safety and maritime safety requirements. The integration of nuclear and maritime regulations is a complex legal challenge that requires the development of new regulatory frameworks.
The Euratom Treaty provides the fundamental legal framework for the development of nuclear energy in the European Union, with competences in nuclear safety and radiation protection, nuclear research and development, the supply of nuclear materials and safeguards control. Specific directives, including 2009/71/Euratom on the Community framework for nuclear safety, 2011/70/Euratom on the management of spent fuel and radioactive waste, and 2013/59/Euratom on basic safety standards, define European standards for the nuclear sector.
The European Taxonomy Regulation on Sustainable Activities includes nuclear energy among sustainable activities, opening up access to green financing for nuclear projects that meet specific technical criteria. The European Maritime Safety Agency has launched specific studies on maritime nuclear energy, recognising the need to develop a regulatory framework for marine nuclear technologies.
7.- The integration of nuclear energy into the port sector has a complex economic profile that requires an in-depth analysis of investment costs, operating costs and expected economic benefits. The structure of initial investment costs varies significantly depending on the technology chosen, with SMRs requiring investments of between €3,000 and €6,000 per kW installed, floating power plants between €4,000 and €7,000 per kW, and traditional reactors between €5,000 and €10,000 per kW.
The operating costs of nuclear energy have a particular structure, with nuclear fuel accounting for €5-10 per MWh, operations and maintenance for €15-25 per MWh, and waste management and decommissioning for €5-15 per MWh, for a total operating cost of between €25 and €50 per MWh. A comparative analysis of levelised costs shows that SMR-based nuclear power has costs of between €60 and €90 per MWh, which is competitive with solar power with storage, which ranges from €70 to €120 per MWh, offshore wind power with storage, which ranges from €80 to €130 per MWh, and natural gas with carbon capture and storage, which ranges from €90 to €140 per MWh.
Nuclear integration can generate significant economic benefits for ports through a 20-40% reduction in energy costs, increased competitiveness in cold ironing services, opportunities for additional revenue from energy sales, and the attraction of investment in energy-intensive sectors. The Energy-as-a-Service model is a particular innovation in which the supplier company remains the owner of the nuclear plant and only sells the energy produced, reducing the investment risk for the port authority.
Public-private partnerships offer contractual structures that combine public and private expertise, with the port authority providing the site concession and operational coordination, the private partner taking care of the investment, construction and management of the nuclear plant, and the sharing of energy revenues according to pre-established agreements. Long-term contracts specific to the port sector, with durations of 20-40 years, ensure economic stability for nuclear investments.
The inclusion of nuclear power in the European taxonomy opens up access to green bonds with subsidised interest rates of between 2.5 and 3.5%, financing from the European Investment Bank and specialised ESG investment funds. The sustainable nuclear bill provides for initial funding and the possibility of support for operators wishing to engage in nuclear activities. European support mechanisms include Horizon Europe for research and innovation, InvestEU for guarantees on investments in strategic infrastructure, and the Recovery and Resilience Facility for funds earmarked for the energy transition.
The economic risk assessment must consider construction risks related to delays in completion times and budget overruns, operational risks related to plant availability and maintenance costs, and market risks related to energy price volatility and changes in port energy demand. Mitigation tools include EPC contracts with performance guarantees, specific insurance for nuclear and operational risks, and diversification of the port energy portfolio.
8.- The analysis of concrete case studies and projects under development provides valuable insights into the practical modalities of integrating nuclear energy and port activities. The experience of nuclear power plants already operating in proximity to port areas demonstrates the technical and operational feasibility of this integration, while innovative projects under development point to the future directions of the sector.
The Doel nuclear power plant, located in the port of Antwerp, is a prime example of nuclear-port integration in a complex industrial context. With four reactors with a total capacity of around 3,000 MW, Doel not only supplies the Belgian national grid but also contributes to the energy needs of the port of Antwerp, one of the largest in Europe. The Doel experience demonstrates how nuclear energy can coexist with intensive port activities, including container traffic, petrochemical operations and the handling of dangerous goods.
The Borssele power plant, located in the port of Flushing in the Netherlands, offers another significant example of this integration. With a capacity of 480 MW, Borssele supplies both the national grid and local port activities, demonstrating how nuclear energy can support the operations of a medium-sized port specialising in specific types of traffic. The Dutch experience is particularly relevant given the national energy transition strategy and ambitious decarbonisation targets.
Vandellòs II, located in the port of Tarragona in Spain, demonstrates how nuclear energy can coexist with port and tourism activities in a Mediterranean context. With a capacity of around 1,000 MW, this plant provides stable energy for port operations and contributes to the regional electricity system, demonstrating the compatibility of nuclear energy with diversified economies that combine industry, tourism and maritime trade.
CORE POWER’s projects for the development of floating nuclear power plants represent the most advanced frontier of innovation in this sector. Their approach involves assembling FNPPs in specialised shipyards, followed by transport and positioning in their destination areas. This methodology allows for mass production, which significantly reduces costs and construction times compared to traditional power plants. CORE POWER’s FNPPs are specifically designed for port applications, with the capacity to provide stable power for data centres, hydrogen production processes and automated operations.
The Tuas Port project in Singapore, while not yet integrating nuclear technologies, is an ideal case study for assessing the potential of such integration. The port’s enormous energy requirements, estimated at 400 GWh per year, and the need for continuous power for automated systems would make the installation of SMRs or FNPPs particularly advantageous. The limited availability of space for large-scale renewable energy plants in Singapore further reinforces the attractiveness of compact nuclear solutions.
The Port of Rotterdam is actively exploring the integration of advanced nuclear technologies into its energy transition strategy. Plans to become Europe’s leading hydrogen hub require huge amounts of decarbonised electricity, which could be optimally supplied by new-generation nuclear plants. The Dutch port authority is conducting feasibility studies for the installation of SMRs dedicated to the production of green hydrogen , with the aim of reducing production costs and ensuring energy supply stability.
The Port of Hamburg’s experience in advanced digitalisation offers interesting insights for nuclear integration. The data centres needed to support artificial intelligence platforms and digital twin systems require continuous and reliable power, which nuclear energy can optimally guarantee. Hamburg’s smartPORT project could benefit significantly from the integration of microreactors dedicated to powering digital infrastructure.
These case studies highlight how the integration of nuclear energy and port activities is not only technically feasible, but can also generate significant synergies in terms of operational efficiency, environmental sustainability and economic competitiveness. The experience gained provides a solid basis for the development of future projects, while ongoing technological innovations open up even more promising prospects for this integration.
9.- The analysis conducted highlights that the integration of port activities and nuclear energy represents not only a technological opportunity but also a strategic necessity to ensure the competitiveness and sustainability of the port system in the era of artificial intelligence and decarbonisation. The new Italian regulatory framework, outlined in the sustainable nuclear bill, provides a solid legal basis for this integration for the first time, opening up new scenarios for the national port sector.
The convergence of needs highlighted by the analysis of international best practices confirms that the world’s major ports are facing energy challenges that intermittent renewable sources alone cannot fully meet. The exponential growth in energy demand, the need for continuous power supply for automated systems, the demand for stable energy for green hydrogen production and ambitious decarbonisation targets require innovative and reliable energy solutions.
New generation nuclear technologies offer concrete solutions through the modularity and flexibility of SMRs for different scales of application, the specific innovation of FNPPs for the maritime-port sector, the high intrinsic safety of advanced third-generation and fourth-generation technologies, and deployment times compatible with the needs of the sector. The sustainable nuclear bill introduces elements of particular relevance through simplified and integrated authorisation procedures, the recognition of the public utility of nuclear interventions, the possibility of producing hydrogen from nuclear sources, and a framework for attracting private investment.
Port authorities and operators should initiate technical and economic feasibility studies for the integration of nuclear technologies, update port energy plans to include the nuclear option, develop partnerships with companies specialising in advanced nuclear technologies, invest in the training of personnel specialised in nuclear safety, establish agreements with universities and research centres for the development of specific skills, and develop transparent communication campaigns on the benefits and safety of new nuclear technologies . The integration of port facilities and nuclear energy, if governed with strategic vision and a rigorous approach to safety, can represent a quantum leap for the competitiveness of the Italian and European logistics system. New-generation nuclear technologies offer concrete solutions to the energy challenges of smart ports, while the new Italian regulatory framework provides the legal tools necessary for this transformation. Success will depend on the ability to effectively coordinate different technical, regulatory and economic skills, while always keeping the safety of operations and the social acceptability of projects at the centre. Italy, with its maritime and port tradition and its new drive towards sustainable nuclear energy, has the opportunity to become a world leader in this emerging sector, contributing significantly to the decarbonisation and competitiveness objectives of the national economic system. The challenge is ambitious but realistic: to transform Italian ports into advanced energy hubs, powered by clean and safe nuclear energy, capable of supporting the digital revolution in global trade and accelerating the transition to a net-zero emissions economy.
